Map

A tool that represents spatial information of the Earth's surface on a plane using a consistent scale and symbols, and the sum total of surveying, projection, and digital technologies.

Map

Overview

A map (地圖, map) is a tool that represents the location, distribution, and relationships of natural and human phenomena existing on the Earth's surface or in any given space on a plane using a consistent scale and agreed-upon symbols. It is not a mere drawing but a precise spatial information medium combining surveying, geography, mathematics (projection), and information science, and it has fundamentally changed the way humanity perceives, moves through, and governs space. Modern maps have shifted their form of existence from paper to digital databases, and today they function as core infrastructure for navigation, autonomous driving, disaster response, and urban planning.

Main content

History of maps

The oldest known maps include the wall painting at Çatalhöyük in Turkey (c. 6200 BCE) and Babylonian clay tablet maps (c. 600 BCE). Ptolemy of ancient Greece, in his Geography, presented parallels and meridians and conic projection, establishing cartography as an academic discipline. In medieval Europe, T-O maps reflecting a religious worldview were dominant, while al-Idrisi in the Islamic world and China's Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Jido (Map of Integrated Lands and Regions of Historical Countries and Capitals) accumulated empirical geographic information.

In the Age of Exploration, the Mercator projection published by Mercator in 1569 represented rhumb lines (loxodromes) as straight lines, revolutionizing navigation, and thereafter reigned as the world standard map for 400 years. In the 18th and 19th centuries, state-led triangulation projects were carried out, giving birth to modern topographic maps, and in the 20th century, aerial photographic surveying and satellite remote sensing were introduced.

Components of a map

Scale: the ratio of actual distance to map distance. A large-scale map of 1:25,000 is used for detailed terrain understanding, while a small-scale map of 1:1,000,000 is used for broad overview.
Orientation: generally north is up, and magnetic declination—the difference between magnetic north, true north, and grid north—is indicated.
Coordinate systems and geodetic datums: latitude and longitude, UTM, and in Korea, the plane rectangular coordinate system using the West, Central, East, and East Sea origins, along with the world geodetic system (KGD2002), are applied.
Symbols and legends: contour lines, rivers, road classes, land use, boundary lines, etc. are expressed with agreed symbols.
Projection: distortion is inevitable in the process of transferring a sphere onto a plane, and conformal, equal-area, or equidistant projections are chosen according to purpose.

Types of maps

General maps contain basic elements such as terrain, water systems, and transportation, while thematic maps emphasize specific themes such as population, climate, geology, soil, and transportation networks. In addition, there are nautical charts, aeronautical charts, geological maps, land use maps, administrative boundary maps, tourist maps, and statistical maps (choropleth maps, isoline maps, flow maps). Recently, their subjects have expanded to include indoor maps, undersea topographic maps, and planetary maps.

Development of production technology

Classical production went through field surveying and triangulation point observation, photogrammetry, contour drafting, and printing processes. Since the 1960s, computer-aided cartography (CAC) emerged, and in the 1970s–80s, geographic information systems (GIS) were established, integrating the storage, analysis, and visualization of spatial data. Entering the 2000s, as GPS, satellite imagery, and web mapping platforms combined, maps shifted from printed materials made by a small number of experts to real-time data that anyone can edit and share.

Latest trends

First, the platformization of maps is accelerating. Google Maps, Apple Maps, Naver Map, and KakaoMap have become base platforms for commercial district analysis, real estate, delivery, and integrated public transit services, going beyond simple directions. Crowdsourced maps represented by OpenStreetMap (OSM), in which volunteers directly update road and building data, compete with commercial maps.

Second, HD maps for autonomous driving have emerged as a new map category. These are three-dimensional vector maps that capture lanes, traffic lights, signs, and curb heights down to the centimeter, and the latest vehicles drive by fusing maps with real-time sensors. Here, the "map-less" approach and automatic map updating pipelines have become axes of competition.

Third, the combination of AI and real-time maps. Deep learning models that automatically extract roads and buildings from satellite and aerial imagery, spatiotemporal models that predict traffic flow, and location-based generative AI that searches for places in natural language have been commercialized. Street View, road view, and augmented reality (AR) directions are spreading as the standard for pedestrian navigation.

Fourth, growth in the indoor, 3D, and digital twin domain. Indoor maps of airports, large malls, and subway stations and BIM-based 3D maps are being integrated into city-level digital twins and used for disaster simulation, carbon emission analysis, and smart city operations.

Fifth, regulatory and ethical issues are coming to the fore. Major issues include restrictions on exporting precise maps for reasons of national security, location information privacy, disputes over national border labeling in map data, and problems where algorithmic recommendations distort commercial districts. At the same time, map literacy (the ability to read maps critically) is being emphasized as part of media education.

Map